How Water Scarcity is Reshaping Africa’s Paper Industry

Water shortage or Water scarcity in Africa?

Water scarcity is different than water shortage or water stress; it specifically refers to scarcity due to physical shortage, or scarcity in access due to the faults in institutional systems to ensure a regular supply, or due to a lack of adequate infrastructure

Water Demand and Supply in Africa

Low and unpredictable water supply, coupled with a high and growing demand and poor use of existing water resources, make Africa a water-constrained continent despite some African countries exhibiting high water availability. Three North-African countries (i.e. Tunisia, Algeria and Libya) are considered as water-scarce with an average annual availability below 500 m3 of water per capita, putting them in the ranks of absolute water scarce countries (See Figure 1). On the other hand, water availability in sub-Saharan countries exceed the FAO recommended threshold 1700 m3/capita/year (See Box 1 for more details on the water scarcity index).

Figure 1 Distribution of average annual water availability in Africa

Paper production is dependent on water, yet relatively little is consumed

The paper industry depends on water in two dimensions. First, there is water that is used in the process to make pulp and paper, and finally, there is the suitably treated effluent.

As water is a crucial resource for industry, most paper mills are located near abundant supplies. In Europe, most mills utilize surface water, such as rivers and lakes (89% of intake), with some taken from their own supplies of groundwater (10%) and the rest from public water supplies (4%).

It is also important to recognize that intake does not equal consumption because most of the water will be returned to the environment. 93% of the water used in the European paper industry is returned in good quality (having been reused within the mill before being suitably treated), with the remainder either evaporated, staying within the product, or bound up in solid waste.

Water is circulated within paper mills several times before it is returned to the environment. Before it is, it needs to be treated because it contains nutrients and organic matter. Various techniques are used, such as filtration, sedimentation, flotation and biological treatment.

Improvements in paper-making techniques and water treatment have had a dramatic effect on the cleanliness of effluent leaving the mill.

Water Shortage in North Africa: not a constraint for paper industry development

Oddly enough, North Africa has more than 90% coverage (drinking water and sanitation), while Sub-Saharan Africa experiences a contrasting case with less than 40% of the total population without access to an improved source of drinking water and sanitation facilities (See Figure 2), proving that water availability and water scarcity are two different (yet related) concepts.

The paper industry has developed more rapidly in North African countries, despite severe water shortages, compared to the rest of Africa, where natural water resources are more abundant. Nations like Egypt, Algeria, and Morocco have invested in advanced paper production facilities, relying on water-efficient technologies and recycling systems to sustain operations. This growth is driven by high demand for paper products, industrial expansion, and strategic adaptations to water scarcity. In contrast, many Sub-Saharan countries, where freshwater sources such as lakes and rivers are more available, have seen slower development in the paper sector, often due to economic constraints, lack of infrastructure, and reliance on imports. This paradox highlights how necessity drives innovation, pushing North African countries to modernize their paper production despite limited water resources…

Water Scarcity in the rest of Africa!

Water scarcity now ranks as the third most concerning global risk, according to the World Economic Forum; water crises are emerging at all levels across entire regions and countries in Africa, although the nature of potential water crises differs from one country to another as well as within individual countries. Water scarcity may shortly emerge as one of the most significant constraints on Africa’s human-development prospects as well as on industrial development.

Recent studies in Africa have shown that the demand for water has increased; Accordingly, greater attention will have to be paid to the management and the use of water as well as the need to revise water allocations. Indeed, in most of the African countries, some progress has been made to fulfill that commitment, with the help of foreign investments; mainly from China.  The latter has pledged about 4.4% of all allocated funding to water and sanitation projects to expand to more than nine million tonnes per day of clean water treatment capacity.  

Water Resources

Over the years, the yield of water resource is changing in most of the African regions. The yield from a water resource is the volume that can be extracted at a certain rate over a specified period, this parameter is used to characterize the capacity of a water resource to serve as a long-term water supply.  Because the level of water in a water system (the flow) varies from year to year and from season to season, the yield also changes from year to year.

Figure 2 Access to water index in African countries

Across the continent, average rainfall is about 670 mm per year, which is comparable to some European and North American areas, but higher evaporation rates in Africa mean a substantially lower share of precipitation contribute to renewable water resources. Distribution of rainfall across the continent is also disproportional with some areas receiving rainfall up to 1,700 mm/year (e.g.: Indian Ocean Island countries), while other areas barely receive 100 mm/year (North African countries).

Africa has 17 rivers with catchment areas covering over 100 000 km2 and it has more than 160 lakes larger than 27 km2, most of which are in the equatorial region and the sub-humid East African Highlands within the Rift Valley. So, it is no wonder that surface water is the primary water resource for African.

Groundwater is also an important resource in Africa, it offers another potential way of meeting some of the supply increases. It is estimated that over 40% of Africans use groundwater as their main source of drinking water, particularly in North and Southern African countries. 

Each country has its problems

Ethiopia, often referred to as the "Water Tower of Africa," possesses significant water resources. However, uneven distribution, coupled with rapid population growth and environmental degradation, has led to water scarcity in many regions. Rural areas, where agriculture is the main livelihood, suffer the most. The construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on the Nile River has also raised concerns about water availability downstream, particularly in Egypt and Sudan.

Kenya grapples with water scarcity, especially in arid and semi-arid regions such as Turkana and Garissa. Erratic rainfall patterns due to climate change exacerbate the situation, affecting agricultural productivity and food security. Moreover, rapid urbanization strains water resources in cities like Nairobi and Mombasa, where inadequate infrastructure and water theft contribute to shortages. To mitigate water scarcity, Kenya needs to invest in water harvesting techniques, efficient irrigation methods, and community-based water management initiatives.

South Africa faces a complex water crisis characterized by a combination of drought, pollution, and inefficient water management. The Western Cape province experienced severe droughts in recent years, leading to water rationing and socioeconomic disruptions. Additionally, contamination of water sources, particularly in peri-urban and informal settlements, poses health risks to communities. Addressing water scarcity in South Africa requires integrated approaches, including improved infrastructure, water conservation measures, and equitable distribution strategies.

In Nigeria, despite abundant surface water bodies like the Niger and Benue rivers, Nigeria faces water scarcity challenges, particularly in the northern regions. Factors such as population growth, inefficient irrigation practices, and pollution from industrial activities and oil exploration contribute to dwindling water supplies. In rural areas, women and girls often bear the burden of fetching water over long distances, limiting their educational and economic opportunities. Sustainable water management, improved sanitation infrastructure, and awareness campaigns are essential to address water scarcity in Nigeria.

In Angola, despite significant investments in recent years, the rate of access to essential services remains low in Angola, particularly access to water. In 2020, only 57% of the population had access to an improved water source nationally and just 28% in rural areas.

Water scarcity as a Constraint on Growth of Industrial Sectors in General

Over exploitation of water has its own set of acute environmental consequences. In terms of economic impacts, the reliability of water supply for human consumption constrains growth, employment, and general human development. At the same time, economic and industrial development increasingly drives water demand, which trickles down to from water demand in the industrial process to increased pressure on the wastewater treatment infrastructure resulting in the increased release of untreated wastewater and possibly resulting in more contamination of water catchments areas. In this respect, the paper industry is regarded as a highly demanding water consuming industry. This could have been one of the reasons of the slow development of the paper manufacturing in some African countries.

However, behavioral changes in municipal consumption to ‘reduce water demand in urban areas is a strategy that is proposing water-conservation and water-demand-management programs in many African countries. Reducing the volume of non-revenue water (water lost through leakage in the system) will also greatly curtail the rise in municipal water demand.

Thermoelectric power generation to drive the manufacturing and mining sectors is increasing the industrial water demand. The water needs in such industries is being balanced with the needs of other sectors like in the paper industry as well as the food industry.

Solutions for Paper Industry Development

In some countries, the exploitable surface water yield can be increased through the treatment of municipal wastewater. The latter could be a significant resource in some countries, two-thirds of which is then directly reused and the remainder is available as exploitable surface water.

This solution has been developed especially in North African countries where water scarcity is reality that states face, like in Egypt, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.

 Desalination plants can be another source of supply, even though they are energy-intensive, so the gains in water supply must be balanced with the associated energy costs, which also require large amounts of water. Desalination also has a brine-disposal implication, which is easier to manage at the coast. The desalination of used water and sea water is being implemented on a small scale in Africa, with several countries including this technology as a strategy to deal with the water shortages including Algeria, Tunisia, and Ghana.

The Future of Water Supply

In Africa, all sources of water supplies are being used: surface water, groundwater, water reuse and desalination.

The demand-supply balance is not the only possible water management solution for Africa. There are many other facts that will affect both the supply and demand of water resources. Climate change, however, could have a negative impact on the availability of both surface and groundwater, and diminish reliable yield over time.

To increase water supply, many African counties put their plan to increase investment in surface water infrastructure, mainly from dams. The strategy plans to increase surface-water yield, increase groundwater, reuse of wastewater, and increase the use of desalinated water in several water-management areas. Another way to reduce water demand is to decrease the volume of water that is lost through physical leakage or commercial losses, referred to as non-revenue water.

Municipal wastewater utilization is another opportunity to increase water supply. In addition, reducing non-revenue water represents an opportunity to decrease municipal water demand.

Equally important is proposing necessary incentives to facilitate the transition to a recycling economy, in which water of different quality and price can be used for different purposes.

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